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Council for Research in Music Education Effect of Music Instruction on Preschoolers’ Music Achievement and Emergent Literacy Achievement Author(s): Maria Runfola, Elisabeth Etopio, Karla Hamlen and Mary Rozendal Source: Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education , No. 192 (Spring 2012), pp. 7-27 Published by: University of Illinois Press on behalf of the Council for Research in Music Education Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5406/bulcouresmusedu.192.0007 JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org. Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at https://about.jstor.org/terms University of Illinois Press and Council for Research in Music Education are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education This content downloaded from 150.250.74.30 on Mon, 18 Feb 2019 14:47:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 7 Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education ©2012 Board of Trustees Spring 2012 No. 192 University of Illinois Effect of Music Instruction on Preschoolers’ Music Achievement and Emergent Literacy Achievement Maria Runfola and Elisabeth Etopio University at Buffalo, State University of New York Buffalo, New York Karla Hamlen Cleveland State University Cleveland, OH Mary Rozendal Grandville, MI ABSTRACT !e purpose of this two-year study, supported in part by the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA), was to examine the impact of “musically trained” early childhood specialists on the music achievement and emergent literacy achievement of preschool students. !e sample, obtained through use of a letter of recruitment mailed to a regional group of National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) members, consisted of 11 teachers who met the criteria for the project and their respective students (N = 165). Following a year of intensive staff development training in musicianship skill and pedagogical strategies for guiding young children’s music development, the teachers implemented the curriculum in the second year and several measures were used to collect data relative to student music and literacy outcomes. Analyses included the nonparametric Mann-Whitney U-test and multivariate techniques of MANCOVA and multiple regression. Results were mixed for music achievement. Median scores were similar for the experimental and control groups on use of singing voice. Students’ tonal pattern achievement in the experimental group was significantly higher but no significant differences were found in children’s rhythmpattern achievement. When controlling for age and prior knowledge, the music intervention significantly increased children’s oral vocabulary and grammatic understanding and was especially effective for children who began with lower literacy skills. I NTRODUCTION/R ATIONALE In today’s political and educational climate, school districts increasingly are focused on test scores in math and literacy, often at the expense of appropriate music experiences for our students. More and more, music educators are being asked to address other BCRME_192_text.indd 7 8/20/12 4:16 PM This content downloaded from 150.250.74.30 on Mon, 18 Feb 2019 14:47:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education Spring 2012 No. 192 8 domains of student learning in addition to music making and listening. Speculation regarding the educational impact of music on learning across the curriculum has stimulated research on the essential importance of music to appropriate schooling and in particular on the importance of music for improving achievement in other academic areas. Accordingly, the focus of this study was to investigate the relationship between music learning and language learning in preschool children, and music’s effect in this relationship. It is widely accepted that music is important in the overall development of preschool children. Yet, how to fully integrate music into the early childhood curriculum, without compromising the integrity of music as a discipline, remains a challenge. Music specialists typically are not as familiar with developmentally appropriate practice for young children as they are with developmentally appropriate practice for students in K–12, and early childhood teachers generally are not as familiar with young children’s music development as they are with other areas of child development (Kelly, 1998; Kim, 2000). Scholars of music education are confident that these concerns may be addressed with appropriate preparation of music specialists. However, music typically is not provided for preschool students by music specialists (Daniels, 1992; Nardo, Custodero, Persellin, & Brink Fox, 2006). As a result music activities are led by early childhood specialists, most of whom do not have the musicianship skills necessary to guide students in music learning (Etopio, 2009). Further, such music activities usually are dependent upon commercially prepared materials such as recorded collections of children’s songs produced by popular artists rather than following a music curriculum (Golden, 1989; Kirsten, 2006; Nardo, 1996; Robberson, 1980; Tarnowski & Barrett, 1997). To address this concern, early childhood teachers’ musicianship and pedagogical content knowledge was targeted to determine if children’s literacy development improved as a result of more appropriate music instruction. PARALLELS BETWEEN L ITERACY AND MUSIC D EVELOPMENT In school settings the best means of developing emergent literacy is through play and naturally occurring language activities (Klenk, 2001; Pellegrini, 1995; Roskos & Christie, 2011; Vygotsky, 1978). Before children begin to read, that is, to master lettersound patterns of print and comprehension skills, they develop language and literacy skills that involve patterning, sequencing, and sound discrimination, commonly known as phonemic awareness (Sulzby, 1991; Teale, 1987). Young children rely on interactions with more knowledgeable members of their family and community to develop and use these early language and literacy skills (Goatley, 1995; Morrow, 2004; Vygotsky, 1978). Children’s use of oral and print language in their early experiences directly impacts their ability to later read and write conventionally. BCRME_192_text.indd 8 8/20/12 4:16 PM This content downloaded from 150.250.74.30 on Mon, 18 Feb 2019 14:47:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 9 Similar to the development of language and literacy skills, early enculturation to a variety of musical sounds builds the foundation for music learning. At a very early age, children absorb the many sounds that surround them and are able to distinguish prosodic contours, phrases, words, phonemes, and vowels. Similarly, children are able to distinguish rhythms and tonal sequences, musical phrases, and patterns. As recognition of these patterns develops, they begin to attach meaning to the musical and language units. However, even more important than their ability to recognize these perceptual units is the process by which they attach meaning to these units. At approximately six months, children change from being hearers of sounds to being participants in the making of speech-like and musical sounds. In children’s early vocalizations, vocal babble and music babble are indistinguishable. As children attach meaning to the aural stimuli, the paths of speech and music development begin to diverge (Chen-Hafteck, 1997; JordanDeCarbo & Nelson, 2002). Many scholars have written about the parallel processes of learning language and learning music (Chen-Hafteck, 1997; Gordon, 2003, 2007; Hansen, Bernstorf & Stuber, 2004). “e parallel development of language and music is summarized in Table 1. “eoretically, the progression of learning music and spoken language is the same— listening, speaking (performing), reading, and writing (Gordon, 2003). For young Table 1 Parallels between Language Development and Music Development Language Music “e notion of language is universal. Every Singing is universal. Every culture has its own culture uses language to communicate. form of music. Grammatical structure in language is “e way music is structured in various not universal. cultures is not universal. Language development begins with an Music development should begin with extensive listening period. an extensive listening period. Children begin with cooing and laughing. Children also engage in music babble. “ey engage in vocal play. Eventually, Eventually they begin to respond purposefully babies babble in context and attempt words. to the music sounds they hear. Children’s initial attempts at language are Children’s initial attempts at singing and not always precise and accurate. However, chanting are not always accurate. “ey will they eventually “break the code.” break the code and imitate music patterns with accuracy. After listening and speaking for After listening and singing with accuracy, approximately six years, children are asked children then read and write what they can to read and then write. already perform. Source: Chen-Hafteck, 1997; Davidson, McKernon, and Gardner, 1981; Gordon, 2003, 2007; Kreutzer, 2001a, 2001b; and Moog, 1976. Runfola, Etopio, Hamlen & Rozendal Music Instruction on Preschoolers’ Music Achievement BCRME_192_text.indd 9 8/20/12 4:16 PM This content downloaded from 150.250.74.30 on Mon, 18 Feb 2019 14:47:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education Spring 2012 No. 192 10 children, engagement with a variety of songs and chants generates a familiarity with music syntax and builds singing and rhythm vocabularies (Gordon, 2003; Holahan, 1984; Valerio, Reynolds, Bolton, Taggart, & Gordon, 1998). Just as young children’s spoken vocabularies flourish in literacy rich environments (Weigel, Martin, & Bennett, 2005) their music vocabularies are enhanced through rich musical environments where dialectic musical interactions occur between a teacher/caregiver and children (Neelly, 2001; Valerio et al., 1998). “at is, children listen to and then perform a repertoire of tonal patterns, rhythm patterns, and songs. Further, learning elements of movement aid and facilitate the music learning process. In preschool music, then, a goal is for children to receive stimulating and playful music experiences that build their music vocabulary and encourage the development of their musical understanding. “ere is preliminary evidence from the field of cognitive neuroscience to support the idea that parallels do exist between language and music processing. “rough comparative music-language research, researchers have postulated that musical abilities and training have consequences for language skills (Patel, 2009) and that music and language share neural resources during the processing of information. “ese resources include but are not limited to Broca’s area (Brown, Martinez, & Parsons, 2006; Koelsch et al., 2004). Patel (2012) concluded that syntax and melodic contour are processed in similar ways. He described that both language and music have context, and both have a hierarchical structure in the form of organized sequences. In music, these hierarchical structures involve tones and chords; in language, words and grammatical positioning of those words in phrases and sentences form the hierarchy. Additionally, in recent study of brainstem encoding and auditory input, there is preliminary evidence that musical abilities and/or training sharpen the brain’s encoding of linguistic sound at a very early stage of processing. Perhaps the most promising finding in this arena of research concerned 4- and 5-year-olds, in whom “music perception skill predicts reading even after the variance shared with phonemic awareness is removed” (Anvari, Trainor, Woodside, & Levy, 2002, p. 127). If these findings from the field of neuroscience are true, it is conceivable that using music, with its rhythm, rhyme, and sound patterns, to stimulate the brain may heighten children’s auditory acuity, thus increasing their ability to process language. MUSIC I NSTRUCTION AND L ANGUAGE L EARNING While there are theoretical parallels between music development and literacy development, as well as neurological bases for connecting the two, it is also important to examine literature concerning the use of music instruction to enhance language learning. An initial base of literature exists to support the premise that music training enhances the language development in young children. Two recent literature reviews have been written to summarize the effects of music instruction on various emergent literacy capacities among preschool children (Bolduc, 2008; O’Herron & Siebenaler, BCRME_192_text.indd 10 8/20/12 4:16 PM This content downloaded from 150.250.74.30 on Mon, 18 Feb 2019 14:47:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 11 2007). Bolduc (2008) analyzed five correlational studies and eight quasi-experimental studies in the fields of music therapy and music education. He concluded that music activities promoted the development of three important components associated with language development: auditory processing, phonological memory, and metacognitive knowledge. O’Herron and Siebenaler (2007), on the other hand, examined the interaction of vocal skill development and early literacy instruction with the goal of providing early childhood teachers practical strategies to enhance auditory processing and quality of speech. “ey concluded that parallels exist between vocal music instruction and language arts instruction. Specifically, auditory processing, articulation, and prosody might be necessary in the development of phonemic awareness and fluency, as well as music skill development. Beyond the literature reviewed by Bolduc (2008) and O’Herron and Siebenaler (2007), additional studies exist where researchers have examined the effect of music instruction on aspects of preschool children’s language development. Jordan-DeCarbo and Galliford (2001) documented the effects of a sequential music curriculum on students’ motor, cognitive, expressive language, and social/emotional readiness of preschool children from low-income families (N = 106). “e curriculum, which involved use of simple instruments, movement, listening, and vocalization, was implemented in experimental classrooms by music specialists once a week for 45 minutes over a 10-week period. “ey found that the experimental group children scored significantly higher on all five subtests of the Preschool Evaluation Scale (PES), as well as demonstrating increased achievement in beat competence, motor flow, expressive movement, and overall musicality. Although they controlled for pretest differences, they did not account for potential variability that may have occurred across sites attributable to the preschool teachers’ level of musicianship. Raisner (2002) investigated whether the introduction of rhythmic music skills would assist 4-year-old children (N = 47) in the language acquisition process, especially in the areas of morphology, syntax, and semantics. He found that children’s rhythm aptitude was significantly related to their morpheme abilities and that this relationship strengthened with research-based rhythmic instruction, including chants in a variety of meters with movement emphasizing flow, weight, space, and time. Although there was not a significant statistical difference in language achievement between the control and experimental groups (F = 3.47, p = .07), Raisner felt that the statistically significant relationship between rhythm and literacy supports the notion that there might be important practical significance for increasing literacy achievement through rhythmic music activities, specifically rhythmic movements and chants. Like Raisner, Levinowitz, Ragen, Clark, and Guilmartin (2009) reported some interesting progress toward the possible link between music and literacy. “e purpose of Levinowitz et al.’s study was to evaluate the comparative effects of a comprehensive early childhood music program (Music Together) on the development of school readiness and literacy skills in urban preschool children (N = 230). As in the Jordan-DeCarbo and Runfola, Etopio, Hamlen & Rozendal Music Instruction on Preschoolers’ Music Achievement BCRME_192_text.indd 11 8/20/12 4:16 PM This content downloaded from 150.250.74.30 on Mon, 18 Feb 2019 14:47:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education Spring 2012 No. 192 12 Galliford study (2001) and Raisner study (2002), the intervention was implemented by music specialists once a week during the study. Although Levinowitz et al. did not find statistically significant results for the experimental group, the students who participated in the curriculum showed a tendency toward higher gain scores. Further, they suggested that the lack of statistical significance supports the notion that the time spent engaging children in developmentally appropriate music experiences does not detract from their academic achievement and that music should continue to play a prominent role in the education of young children. While it appears that a pattern of evidence is emerging to suggest that activities of listening to music (Standard 3), creating musical sounds and patterns (Standard 2), and participating in playful, dialectic music experiences (Standard 1) have potential to affect a young child’s emergent literacy skill in a positive way, further research is warranted with more participants and in different settings. Moreover, the interventions in the studies reviewed were delivered by visiting music specialists. In most early childhood centers, however, the preschool teacher has primary responsibility for music instruction of the children and weaves music into classroom activities throughout the day. “us, the staff development of early childhood specialists with little or no musicianship training and their implementation of a music curriculum were of particular interest. “e purpose of this study, then, was to investigate the efficacy of a research-based music curriculum delivered by early childhood specialists who were prepared to guide the music learning of preschoolers. “e music intervention developed for this study included a fully designed music curriculum and professional development package. “e specific questions were: 1. What are the effects of a music intervention on preschool children’s music achievement? 2. What are the effects of a music intervention on preschool children’s emergent literacy achievement? D ESIGN Participants Preschool Teachers. A combination of criterion and convenience sampling procedures was used to select participants (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Over 30 teachers and administrators who were members of the regional chapter of the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC), attended our informational meeting but only 18 teachers met the criteria for the project, the most relevant of which were (a) teachers worked with 4-year-old children, (b) teachers, not music specialists, delivered all music instruction, and (c) teachers were willing to participate in the rigors of a 2-year staff development program. “ose teachers who met the criteria and assented to participate were assigned randomly to one of two groups, experimental (n = 9) and control (n = 9). BCRME_192_text.indd 12 8/20/12 4:16 PM This content downloaded from 150.250.74.30 on Mon, 18 Feb 2019 14:47:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 13 From initial survey data collected, we determined that teachers in the experimental group and teachers in the control group were comparable in terms of years of experience and setting in which they taught, as well as their previous music training and comfort levels leading music activities with their students. In addition, when their results on the Advanced Measures of Music Audiation (AMMA) (Gordon, 1989a) were compared to percentile ranks for non–music majors, we confirmed a normal distribution of aptitude overall, and similar aptitude within each group. Several factors contributed to loss of teacher participants: personal health, administrative change of grade level to grades other than preschool, and loss of interest by teachers in the control group who expressed concern that they were not participating in the same activities as the “other teachers.” Keeping teachers motivated to remain in a control group presents a challenge for researchers (Jordan-DeCarbo & Galliford, 2001); this was a primary reason for our attrition. “e final number of participants included 11 preschool teachers (control n = 4; experimental n = 7) and their respective students (n = 165). Despite this attrition, the characteristics of the teachers and their settings remained appropriate for us to continue the project. Ten participating teachers were female, one was male, and their classroom experience ranged from early to midto late career. “e preschool settings in which they worked represented a broad cross section of the community with four of the programs in urban settings, three in suburban areas, and four in rural settings. Eight teachers taught in full-day programs, while three taught in half-day programs. While these features help describe the teachers who participated in the study, the number of participating teachers was too small to analyze the data by these characteristics. Preschool Students. Student participants initially included 97 males and 75 females whose parents gave permission by signing an Institutional Review Board– approved consent form. “roughout the course of the project, 7 students (3 from experimental and 4 from control group) moved away. “e final sample was 94 males and 71 females. “e children’s ages ranged from 41 to 63 months (M = 52 months) and their ethnic backgrounds were varied: 66% Caucasian, 19% African American, 8% Hispanic, and 7% other. Developmental music aptitude as measured by Audie (Gordon, 1989b) approximated the means reported in the manual for both tonal aptitude and rhythm aptitude while the standard deviations were slightly smaller, suggesting a more homogeneous group than the norms group. Procedures Treatment. “e treatment included a fully designed music curriculum and professional development package. During the first year of this 2-year project, teachers in the experimental group met biweekly during the academic year with members of the research team for training in musicianship skill and pedagogical strategies for guiding Runfola, Etopio, Hamlen & Rozendal Music Instruction on Preschoolers’ Music Achievement BCRME_192_text.indd 13 8/20/12 4:16 PM This content downloaded from 150.250.74.30 on Mon, 18 Feb 2019 14:47:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education Spring 2012 No. 192 14 young children’s music development. During the intervening summer they participated in an intensive practicum at the University at Buffalo’s Early Childhood Research Center (ECRC). “roughout the staff development process, prekindergarten teachers worked with a team of early childhood music specialists to develop their own singing voice, to gain confidence moving freely and creatively, to facilitate tonal and rhythm pattern dialogue, and to build a repertoire of songs and chants. Teachers also became familiar with a music curriculum that fostered musical understandings (Gordon, 2003; Runfola & Swanwick, 2002; Valerio et al., 1998) and paralleled the National Association for Music Education Pre-K Music Education Achievement Standards (MENC, 1995). In the second year of the study, the teachers implemented the curriculum designed as the intervention for use in this study. Designed for implementation during a 10- to 20-minute “circle time,” the curriculum consisted of daily musical activities including tonal- and rhythm-pattern development, vocal exploration, creative movement, singing with and without words, and exposure to a wide range of tonalities and meters. Members of the control group did not participate in staff development and were encouraged to maintain the status quo of music activity in their classrooms. “eir participation in this project did not seem to alter their use of music in the classroom. Based on videotaped observations of teachers in the control group, the activities appeared to be “typical” of what happens in preschool programs: children sang along in inappropriate ranges or played rhythm band instruments to commercial music recordings; weather, time, days of week, and other content were taught through music. In general, music was used for entertainment and classroom management (e.g., “Shake the Sillies Out”). “ere was no literacy intervention associated with this project, nor did the music staff development incorporate any information about a possible music-literacy connection. All other aspects of the preschool curriculum were unchanged. Measures. Several measures were used to collect data for student music and literacy outcomes. “e music outcomes of interest were students’ use of singing voice and their early audiation achievement. “e literacy outcomes were components of spoken language and differing aspects of emergent literacy. Music Measures. Children’s use of singing voice was measured by the Singing Voice Development Measure (SVDM) (Rutkowski, 1986). SVDM has been studied extensively by its developer (Rutkowski, 1990, 1996; Rutkowski & Miller, 2003a, 2003b) and has been used as the measure of choice by other researchers (Dansereau, 2005; Doneski, 2005; Guerrini, 2002; Jaffurs, 2000; Kim, 2000; Levinowitz et al., 1998; Steenwyk, 2004; Vande Wege, 2005). Administration of SVDM involved taping individual children imitating the tonal patterns of a short song. Early childhood music specialists—using a well-defined rating scale—evaluated audio-recorded student performances. SVDM has been shown to be a valid measure when used with schoolage children (Rutkowski, 1990) and preschool children (Dansereau, 2005). Once it was BCRME_192_text.indd 14 8/20/12 4:16 PM This content downloaded from 150.250.74.30 on Mon, 18 Feb 2019 14:47:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 15 established that intrarater reliability estimates were high (r = .96 for both raters), interrater reliability estimates were calculated and also found to be acceptable (r = .87). Children’s tonal achievement and rhythm achievement were measured with the Test of Early Audiation Achievement (T-EAA), a new criterion measure developed for and piloted in this study (Runfola & Etopio, 2010). T-EAA was designed to describe characteristics of young children’s musicianship as they emerge into tonal audiation and rhythm audiation, and to do so in terms that capture the varying nuances displayed in young children’s on-demand performances. T-EAA consists of four subtests with rubrics measuring recorded performances of (a) tonal center (resting tone), (b) tonal patterns, (c) rhythm patterns, and (d) a familiar song, analyzed separately for tonal and rhythm elements. Because of concerns that control-group teachers would not be able to teach an original criterion song and even minimal exposure to a music specialist teaching a song might interfere with the effect of the experimental treatment outcomes, a familiar song was deemed more suitable. “”e Alphabet Song” was selected because of its appropriate singing range, lack of ethnic or religious connotation, and common mode and meter. Furthermore, both the experimental- and control-group teachers reported using this song with their students on a regular basis. “e validity of T-EAA is grounded in the taxonomy of pattern difficulties (Gordon, 1974) and theory of preparatory audiation (Gordon, 2003; Valerio et al., 1998). Gordon (1974) found that children discriminate patterns with varying levels of difficulty; thus, representative patterns were selected from each of three difficulty levels of patterns (easy, moderate, and difficult) as an initial attempt to establish content validity. Further, the musical behaviors included were consistent with those expected of young students as they move recurrently within the stages of preparatory audiation. In the development of T-EAA, classical test theory and more contemporary thought regarding assessment formed the foundation of methodology used (Runfola & Etopio, 2010). Procedures outlined by Wiggins (1998) were followed as the scoring rubrics for T-EAA were developed. First, a team of early childhood music specialists reviewed a small sample of preschool students’ performances and described performance characteristics they observed. Next, these observations were organized hierarchically and adjusted to reflect research in the field, resulting in an analytic rubric for each subtest. “e tasks and rubrics were then field-tested, revised based on the adjudicators’ comments, and tested again. Nonbiased experts in music development of children evaluated the results of T-EAA and agreed that the tasks (each item) were in concert with Gordon’s theory of preparatory audiation (2003) and representative of expected responses typical of young children as they begin to develop listening and singing skills. In the field tests, T-EAA was used successfully with children ranging in age from 3 to 5 years. Reliability, a necessary condition for valid interpretations, was estimated as follows. Four sets of CDs were prepared from the children’s T-EAA performances. To eliminate potential rater bias resulting from hearing previous item performances, children’s Runfola, Etopio, Hamlen & Rozendal Music Instruction on Preschoolers’ Music Achievement BCRME_192_text.indd 15 8/20/12 4:16 PM This content downloaded from 150.250.74.30 on Mon, 18 Feb 2019 14:47:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education Spring 2012 No. 192 16 performances were divided by subtests and arranged in different random order on the CDs. Preparing the CDs so that adjudication could take place by subtest, with the performances in different random order for each subtest, was similar in procedure to the way exams with multiple essay questions are scored. As can be seen in Table 2, interrater reliabilities were moderate to high. For further detail regarding the development of T-EAA, see Runfola and Etopio (2010). For several reasons, only data from the posttest music measures were used in the analyses. In spite of our efforts to adhere to the guidelines of the Goals 1 Early Childhood Assessments Resource Group (Shepard, Kagan, & Wurtz, 1998) during pretest data collection, the children demonstrated in numerous ways that they were not ready developmentally for the music measures. For example, during pretest administration of the SVDM, one child looked up instead of singing the do-ti-la pattern for the text “look up now.” Many of the children gave no response at all to the patterns. We speculate, mostly from observing the children’s body language, that they were making so many beginning-of-the-school-year adjustments that getting them to speak for the literacy test was much more reasonable than getting them to sing or chant patterns for yet another unfamiliar adult. During administration of the posttest, these behaviors were not observed in either the experimental or control group. Literacy Measure. One comprehensive measure of literacy development was used to gather data relevant to the questions. “e Test of Language Development: Primary (3rd edition) (TOLD: P3) is a standardized measure comprised of different components of spoken language and reflects exclusively a linguistic frame of reference (Newcomer & Hammill, 1997). “e TOLD was chosen over other measures of emergent literacy due to the standardization of the measure and its inclusion of both language and key emergent literacy development skills such as phonemic analysis and word discrimination. “is standardized measure is broken down into two major sections: core subtests and supplemental subtests. “e core subtests measure semantic and syntactic aspects of oral-language abilities and consist of six subtests. Picture Table 2 Interrater Reliabilities for Singing Voice Development Measure (SVDM) and the Subtests of the Test of Early Audiation Achievement (T-EAA) Test Inter-rater Reliability SVDM .87 T-EAA Resting tone .88 Tonal patterns .91 Rhythm patterns .91 Song—Tonal elements .73 Song—Rhythm elements .63 BCRME_192_text.indd 16 8/20/12 4:16 PM This content downloaded from 150.250.74.30 on Mon, 18 Feb 2019 14:47:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 17 Vocabulary, Relational Vocabulary, and Oral Vocabulary assess the understanding and meaningful use of spoken words. Grammatic Understanding, Sentence Imitation, and Grammatic Completion assess differing aspects of syntax. “e supplemental subtests measure the phonological aspect of oral-language abilities considered key skills in emergent literacy and consist of three subtests: Word Articulation, Phonemic Analysis, and Word Discrimination. “ese nine subtests can then be combined into composites that represent various aspects of oral language. “ese include features (listening, organizing, and speaking), as well as systems (semantics, syntax, and spoken language/phonology) found constant in the development of the English language. Validity has been studied extensively; test reliability estimates, investigated by coefficient alpha and test-retest methods, were all above .77 and deemed high enough to warrant use of the test in this study. In order to document the oral-language progress of the children, this test had to be administered both before and after any intervention. “e TOLD was administered to the students in their prekindergarten classrooms by examiners who went to the schools where the children attended and tested them in a quiet location outside of the classroom where instruction occurred, such as an empty neighboring classroom or a quiet hallway, depending on the availability of space. Depending on the length of their attention span, the children were administered the complete TOLD in one or two sessions. Before the music intervention began, every child participating in the study was administered the TOLD. “e tests were then scored and results were analyzed so that the researchers had a better understanding of each child’s oral-language abilities prior to the music intervention. After the music intervention was completed, the TOLD was readministered to each child participant and results were compared to the pretest TOLD scores in order to gain a better understanding of the effects of the music intervention on children’s oral-language abilities and emergent literacy skills. RESULTS “e first problem of this study was to determine the effects of the music intervention on preschool children’s music achievement. For the music criterion measures, our prediction a priori was that a score of 3 defined “at standard” for each subtest of T-EAA. “ough SVDM is a 5-point rating scale, in the analysis we treated it like a rubric with an expectation set at 4 “initial range singer” as “at standard.” When using rubrics or simple scales, it is not anticipated that the shape of the distribution be normal but rather the scores are likely to cluster around 3 and 4. Consequently the Mann-Whitney U-test, a nonparametric statistic, was used to examine median differences between the two groups for SVDM and each subtest of T-EAA (Bruning & Kintz, 1997). Median scores reported in Table 3 are the summed scores of the two judges. As can be seen in Table 3, students in the experimental group seemed to benefit from the intervention tonally more than rhythmically. Even though the only statistical Runfola, Etopio, Hamlen & Rozendal Music Instruction on Preschoolers’ Music Achievement BCRME_192_text.indd 17 8/20/12 4:16 PM This content downloaded from 150.250.74.30 on Mon, 18 Feb 2019 14:47:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education Spring 2012 No. 192 18 significance was for the T-EAA Tonal Patterns subtest (U = 1979.0, p < .05), the SVDM and the T-EAA Song—Tonal elements medians were higher for the experimental group. “us, it appears that regular implementation of appropriate musical experiences, guided by classroom specialists, nurtures students’ tonal pattern achievement and may be beneficial to tonal development generally. “ere were no statistically significant differences in children’s rhythm performances. “e second problem of interest in this study was to determine the effects of the music intervention on preschool children’s emergent literacy. Means and standard deviations for each TOLD subtest and each group are shown in Table 4. Univariate between-subjects Analyses of Covariance were conducted for each of the subtests, with group (experimental/control) as the independent variable, each TOLD subtest posttest as dependent variable, and the corresponding TOLD pretest and age as covariates. Results are shown in Table 5. “ere were statistically significant results based on group for two of the subtests: Oral Vocabulary and Grammatic Understanding. When controlling for age and prior knowledge, the music intervention significantly increased children’s oral vocabulary and grammatic understanding, when compared to the control group that did not experience the music intervention (p < .05). Because the music treatment was found to be effective at increasing literacy scores, at least for two of the literacy measures a follow-up analysis was done among only the participants in the experimental group to determine if the music treatment had a differential effect for students who began the study at different levels of literacy achievement. For this analysis, a multiple multivariate regression was conducted with independent variables age and pretest scores, and dependent variable gain scores (raw posttest score—raw pretest score) for each subtest. “e pretest scores were grouped together in the analysis because Table 3 Students’ Median Music Achievement Control Experimental Test Group Mdn Group Mdn Mann-Whitney U SVDM 6.0 7.0 2136.5 T-EAA Resting tone 6.0 6.0 2320.0 Tonal patterns 24.0 28.0 1979.0* Rhythm patterns 38.0 41.0 2087.0 Song—Tonal elements 4.0 5.0 2315.5 Song—Rhythm elements 6.0 6.0 2100.5 Note. SVDM is a 5-pt. scale, therefore the total possible score (TPS) was 10. The T-EAA resting tone and song subtests used a 4-pt scale, so the TPS for each of these subtests was 8. The pattern subtests were each comprised of 6 patterns, evaluated with a 4-pt. scale, by two judges for a TPS of 48. *p < .05. BCRME_192_text.indd 18 8/20/12 4:16 PM This content downloaded from 150.250.74.30 on Mon, 18 Feb 2019 14:47:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 19 they are conceptually related. Age and pretest scores were entered in a stepwise fashion, making age a covariate. Results of the regression analysis are shown in Table 6. An alpha level of .01 was used for the univariate tests. “e statistically significant results of the multivariate multiple regression analysis show that, when controlling for age, pretest scores do predict gain scores for all the subtests together on the multivariate level and for all but two subtests on the univariate level. Students in the treatment group with lower pretest scores tend to have higher gain scores in literacy after this intervention. In other words, the music intervention was especially effective at improving literacy achievement for children who began with lower literacy skills. Table 4 Pre- and Posttest Descriptive Statistics for Each Subtest and Group Pretest Posttest Source M SD M SD Picture Vocabulary Experimental 10.68 4.08 12.10 3.87 Control 9.79 4.50 11.66 3.27 Relational Vocabulary Experimental 6.53 4.46 9.19 4.91 Control 6.36 3.39 8.84 3.82 Oral Vocabulary Experimental 3.73 3.19 7.91 4.88 Control 3.48 3.44 5.69 3.98 Grammatic Understanding Experimental 10.54 4.55 14.08 4.17 Control 10.15 5.08 11.78 6.09 Sentence Imitation Experimental 6.26 4.70 8.28 5.54 Control 6.00 5.11 8.16 6.29 Grammatic Completion Experimental 6.52 4.85 8.83 5.96 Control 4.85 3.35 6.97 4.94 Word Discrimination Experimental 6.60 6.56 10.17 6.88 Control 6.94 7.07 8.44 7.22 Phonemic Analysis Experimental 6.62 11.15 8.74 4.70 Control 4.39 4.43 6.97 4.21 Word Articulation Experimental 12.37 5.54 13.16 5.73 Control 13.64 4.84 14.81 5.53 Runfola, Etopio, Hamlen & Rozendal Music Instruction on Preschoolers’ Music Achievement BCRME_192_text.indd 19 8/20/12 4:16 PM This content downloaded from 150.250.74.30 on Mon, 18 Feb 2019 14:47:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education Spring 2012 No. 192 20 Table 5 Analyses of Covariance for Each TOLD Subtest Variable and Source MS F η2 Picture Vocabulary Posttest Age 49.24 4.03* .03 Pretest 280.16 22.91*** .13 Group 2.10 0.17 .00 Relational Vocabulary Posttest Age 84.24 5.18* .03 Pretest 637.52 39.23*** .21 Group 2.65 0.16 .00 Oral Vocabulary Posttest Age 282.00 16.01*** .10 Pretest 283.95 16.13*** .10 Group 74.24 4.22* .03 Grammatic Understanding Posttest Age 87.64 6.06* .04 Pretest 602.19 41.64*** .22 Group 96.50 6.67* .04 Sentence Imitation Posttest Age 83.66 5.52* .04 Pretest 2023.73 133.50*** .49 Group 0.24 0.02 .00 Grammatic Completion Posttest Age 138.19 6.29* .04 Pretest 1099.42 50.04*** .26 Group 1.85 0.08 .00 Word Discrimination Posttest Age 135.37 3.41 .02 Pretest 874.25 22.04*** .14 Group 99.85 2.52 .02 Phonemic Analysis Posttest Age 154.59 8.78** .06 Pretest 169.61 9.63** .06 Group 32.46 1.84 .01 Word Articulation Posttest Age 50.92 3.29 .02 Word Articulation Pretest 2237.01 144.55*** .51 Group 13.73 0.89 .01 *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001 BCRME_192_text.indd 20 8/20/12 4:16 PM This content downloaded from 150.250.74.30 on Mon, 18 Feb 2019 14:47:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 21 D ISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS Conclusions “e purpose of this study was to investigate the efficacy of a research-based music curriculum delivered by early childhood specialists who were prepared to guide the music learning of preschoolers. It was found that preschool children who received this music intervention demonstrated better achievement in both music (early audiation of tonal elements) and aspects of emergent literacy (oral vocabulary and grammatic understanding). “ese results add to the growing body of literature pointing toward the potential of music development to positively impact early literacy learning (Bolduc, 2008; JordanTable 6 Regression Analysis: Effectiveness of Treatment for Differing Levels of Reading Ability Univariate Source D.F. F (D.F.) F-Ratios of gain score p less than ΔR2 Age 1 1.2 Picture Vocabulary = 0.1 — 0.001 (9,115) Relational Vocabulary = 0.5 — 0.004 Oral Vocabulary = 6.3* .05 0.049 Grammatic Understanding = 0.5 — 0.004 Sentence Imitation = 1.9 — 0.015 Grammatic Completion = 1.2 — 0.010 Word Discrimination = 0.4 — 0.004 Phonemic Analysis = 0.1 — 0.001 Word Articulation = 1.2 — 0.010 Pretest Scores 9 5.0*** Picture Vocabulary = 5.4*** .001 0.300 (81,694) Relational Vocabulary = 4.5*** .001 0.263 Oral Vocabulary = 4.1*** .001 0.234 Grammatic Understanding = 5.9*** .001 0.316 Sentence Imitation = 2.5* .05 0.164 Grammatic Completion = 4.4*** .001 0.255 Word Discrimination = 8.8*** .001 0.407 Phonemic Analysis = 2.7** .01 0.178 Word Articulation = 2.9** .01 0.185 Error 114 Mean Squares: Picture Vocabulary = 0.001 Relational Vocabulary = 0.002 Oral Vocabulary = 0.001 Grammatic Understanding = 0.001 Sentence Imitation = 0.002 Grammatic Completion = 0.002 Word Discrimination = 0.003 Phonemic Analysis = 0.010 Word Articulation = 0.002 *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001 Runfola, Etopio, Hamlen & Rozendal Music Instruction on Preschoolers’ Music Achievement BCRME_192_text.indd 21 8/20/12 4:16 PM This content downloaded from 150.250.74.30 on Mon, 18 Feb 2019 14:47:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education Spring 2012 No. 192 22 DeCarbo & Galliford, 2001; O’Herron & Siebenaler, 2007; Raisner, 2002). “ough these results are encouraging, there is insufficient evidence to conclude firmly that there is a direct effect of students’ music learning on their emergent literacy. Although we provided for examining this effect in the original design, loss of power due to attrition in the control group negated this possibility. A unique aspect of this study was that classroom teachers delivered the intervention, not music specialists. Professional development provided was intensive and focused on teacher musicianship and pedagogical content knowledge. It is not definitive from these findings whether the improved tonal musicianship of the children was due to the improved musicianship of the teachers, the strategies they used to guide music activity, or the richness of the materials, which included songs and chants in many modes and meters. While it is possible that a stronger link might have been found had music specialists delivered the music intervention, it may be that a more realistic picture of what could practically happen in early childhood classrooms is represented in this study. An initial concern of the classroom teachers participating in the experimental group was that spending 15–20 minutes daily on music activities would detract from their literacy curriculums. However, consistent with Levinowitz et al. (2009), having music time every day did not take away from the children’s progress in literacy. Conversely, in this study aspects of literacy achievement were enhanced. Moreover, through these findings, we can support literacy specialists’ recommendations that authentic, developmentally appropriate, and playful experiences with music can facilitate language development (Klenk, 2001; National Association for the Education of Young Children, 1998; Yopp & Yopp, 2009). Limitations Although this project was executed systematically, there were limitations and alternative explanations of the findings. “e most serious limitations were attrition of teachers in the control group and their students, and potential inherent differences because of various literacy programs used in the sample. Certainly, the teacher attrition jeopardized the internal validity and the multiple literacy programs may account for the increased literacy skill. In future studies, teacher literacy practice and the fidelity of their literacy curriculum should be examined. Because the T-EAA was piloted in this study, concerns as related to this music criterion measure evolved. With regard to the rhythm items, the majority of students met or exceeded the expected outcomes, thus not providing adequate discrimination among the students. “is large percentage of student success might be explained by the observation that in music learning, children typically advance through the types and stages of preparatory audiation more quickly in rhythm learning than they do in tonal learning (Gordon, 2003). Further study in this regard is warranted. BCRME_192_text.indd 22 8/20/12 4:16 PM This content downloaded from 150.250.74.30 on Mon, 18 Feb 2019 14:47:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 23 Contributions and Recommendations Despite the limitations identified, as music educators we observe many instances in our settings where we have strong intuitions that music has a positive impact on preschool children’s emergent literacy. “ese findings have strong implications for more effective education of our classroom teachers so that they are better equipped to guide the music experiences of their preschool students. “is study also provided additional support for the link between music achievement and emergent literacy. Even so, the contribution from this study that is perhaps of greatest interest to music educators is that music achievement of young children was improved through effective professional development of early childhood specialists. Nardo et al. (2006) identified that “early childhood teachers feel ill-prepared to deliver meaningful instruction” (p. 289). In this project, a professional development model was used effectively to address this deficiency. “e success of this study warrants immediate attention from the music education community for more professional development for early childhood teachers who are not music specialists, and greater attention to early childhood music coursework for elementary and early childhood education students. Such experiences should focus on bringing teachers into their singing voice, building a repertoire of songs and chants in various tonalities and meters, selecting materials in appropriate singing range for young children, facilitating musical conversations, and engaging in creative movement experiences that enhance musical understanding. Clearly, sustained collaboration is needed between music educators and early childhood professionals to build on the success of this study and develop additional models of professional development that will work in a variety of settings and contexts, improving early musical experiences for all young children. N OTE At the time of the study, all authors were affiliated with the Department of Learning and Instruction, Graduate School of Education, University at Buffalo, State University of New York. Subsequent to the time of the study, Karla Hamlen is at the Cleveland State University in Cleveland, OH and Mary Rozendal is at the EnCourage Institute for Teaching and Learning in Grandville, MI. “is research was funded in part by a grant from the National Endowment for the Arts. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Maria Runfola, Department of Learning and Instruction, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY 14260. 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